The Roots of Gnosticism
1. The Greek method of Philosophical enquiry
The Greeks did not oppose or reject the Christian world view, not initially, but in their tradition of philosophical dialogue they were quite prepared to debate the whole matter and compare it and test it with their own views and thinking.
This was how the Greeks traditionally approached any new idea, it was simply not an option to reject a new idea or philosophical view without engaging it in a critical discussion in which it would be weighed up and compared to other ideas and teachings. The Greeks never came to a point where they had decided all was known, they felt the process of knowledge was ongoing and it was the duty of man to pursue "knowledge" or "Gnosis" as a crowning principle of existence.
Greek Dialogue or Dialectic
Latin took over the word as dialogue.
This term was originally derived from the Greek expression, "art of conversation". The general definition for dialectic is as follows: "a method of reasoning that compares and contrasts opposing points of view in order to find a new point of view that will incorporate whatever is true in the originals."
The opposing points of view in dialectic reasoning are sometimes referred to as the thesis and antithesis; the new point of view is referred to as the synthesis.
Zeno of Elea
Perhaps the earliest example of Dialectic is in the 5th C the philosopher Zeno whose method of reasoning in his "Paradoxes" included a method of refutation by examining logical consequences and through a process of elimination one could arrive at the single most logical conclusion. |
| Zeno shows the Doors to Truth and Falsity (Veritas et Falsitas). Fresco in the Library of El Escorial, Madrid. |
Sophism
The next group with documentation of their use of the term were the sophists who defined dialectic as sophistical reasoning, (Sophistically). Sophist is related to sophia meaning wisdom. This is the name used in the Hagia Sophia 'holy wisdom' the byzantine church. This Sophia is also the name of the female aspect of God in Gnosticism.The Sophists were really experts at Rhetoric and during the 5th Century they came to be much in demand in the revitalised city of Athens. They made a living by teaching the young men in the aristocracy debating skills and the ability to argue logically against an opponent. They were much criticised by Socrates/Plato for charging for their services.
But their importance to Greek philosophy is mainly due to the method of enquiry in Rhetoric that became the established approach for all dialectic and philosophical and scientific enquiry.
Socrates Plato Aristotle
Socrates, and Plato's arguments used dialectic as the method of division or repeated logical analysis of genera into species, (narrowing down).The term "dialectic" was used by Socrates as "the art of discussion" by which he searched for truth through questioning and answering.
Plato's form of dialectic was a process of division where the issue begins as a general one and is divided until it is less general, meaning that it could not possibly be divided again.
Aristotle used the term in the sense of an investigation of the supremely general abstract notions by some process of reasoning leading up to them from particular cases or hypothesis, (starting small and working bigger using known, provable facts.) Aristotle was also known to define dialectic as A. formal logic and B. logical reasoning or debate using premises that are merely probable or generally accepted. The latter could also be read as: basing reasoning on widespread assumptions.
This method of logical reasoning in debate and dialogue meant that the Greek Philosophical approach was reluctant to dismiss any new ideas without careful weighing and reflecting, this would appear to be a very wonderful thing, something perhaps lacking in todays Scholarship. Of course the negative side to this was that just about anything could and was taken seriously.
How Did This effect the early Church?
This had a profound effect on the thinking of young philosophers who had come under the teachings of Christians. They simply accepted them on the basis of Greek Philosophical traditions and proceeded to try and enlarge on existing ideas and incorporate new Christian teachings into them. Perhaps this was the cause of many ideas and beliefs that muddied the waters and gave the early Church a real problem in trying to sort out the essentials of the growing faith.
The difficulty for the developing Christian community was a lack of a formal theology and cosmology when faced with the intellectual heavyweights of the Greek Philosophical Schools the Christians who were well grounded in Greek traditions felt the pressure to respond to the method and practice of dialectic reasoning when presenting their arguments. It is in this climate that one can easily see how the Greek method of reasoning out in an open discussion could easily begin to incorporate existing ideas and beliefs into the Christian story.
Plus the fact of the mythological aspect of Greek philosophy draws a parallel to the Biblical narrative in the Torah which had been translated into the Greek Septuagint and could easily be seen by the Philosophers of the day as a mythological depiction of a philosophical idea.
It is a conjectural idea that nevertheless can be demonstrated when one take these matters into account.The introduction of Gnostic thought and principles could be an attempt to marry a Greek philosophical approach to the Torah with the interpretation of Greek ideas expressed in Plato and other philosophers of the day. This whole process can be clearly seen in the introduction of Gnostic principles which would appear to satisfy the Greek dialectic as well as philosophical mythology.
This is clearly evident when we examine the roots of Gnosticism in Greek religious thinking
We must now have a look at the history of Philosophical thought in the Greek religion, it is a long and complicated History so there is a danger of oversimplification but still there can be seen a thread of ideas that can be traced from early Greek religion to the third century AD. which will now be demonstrated.
2. The foundational aspects of Gnosticism in Ancient Greece
An early religious movement in Greece THE ORPHIC CULT developed between 700 and 600 BC from Egypt, Thrace, and Thessaly.
The Orpheus Myth
He was a Thracian who surpassed all men in music and culture. He often is referred to as a musician, sometimes as a priest of Dionysus. He played the lyre so well, and sang to it so melodiously, that those who heard him almost began to worship him as a god; wild animals became tame at his voice, and trees and rocks left their places to follow the sound of his harp. He married the fair Eurydice, and almost went mad when death took her. He plunged into Hades, charmed Persephone with his lyre, and was allowed to lead Eurydice up to life again on the condition that he would not look back upon her until the surface of the earth was reached. At the last barrier anxiety overcame himself she should no longer be following; he looked back, only to see her snatched down once more into the nether world.
Orpheus left behind many sacred songs; by 520 BC these hymns had acquired a sacred character as divinely inspired, and formed the basis of a mystical cult related to that of Dionysus but far superior to it in doctrine, ritual, and moral influence.
Orphism is a development out of an older Dionysiac mystery religion
Firstly a quick look at Dionysus
In one version his mother was Semele a princess whose father was King Cadmus of Thebes. Zeus raped Semele (as he did to many other woman as well). Jealous Hera his wife goes to Semele to get the truth about her pregnancy and proceeds to trick her into demanding Zeus show himself to her as he truly is. But unknown to Semele a mortal cannot see a God in his Glory and live. He apparently tries to warn her but to no avail.
He then rescues her unborn Child and sows him into his thigh and carries him there until he is born as Dionysus. So he his born of a woman and again from a God and is described as the 'twice born'.
In the growing tradition of esoteric religious ideas the myth is explained as a means to link the spirituality of the mysteries with the mythology of the 'old Gods' and mythological stories are developed or expanded in order to encapsulate in a simple tale a deeper esoteric experience in the progress of an initiate.
Therefore this 'Twice Born' has a mystical significance in the Dionysian mysteries in which initiates go through rituals of birth and rebirth after a long process of renunciation and ecstatic states of mind.
Dionysus is given to Hermes
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| Hermes with the infant Dionysus, discovered in 1877 in the ruins of the Temple of Hera |
Hermes delivers the child to the care of King Athamas and his wife Ino, with instructions to hide him from the vengeful Hera by disguising him as a girl.
But he was unfortunately discovered later by Hera who struck him with madness. Fortunately Not before he discovered the process of wine making. He was discovered by the Goddess Cybele wandering aimlessly and she taking pity on him, cured him. He then teaches the art of winemaking to the peoples of Asia
There is a strange tale of Dionysus returning to Thebes taken from a Greek play written by Euripides called The Bacchae
Since Dionysus went mad he has since developed the ability to make other people go mad, which he uses to great effect on his enemies.
He seeks revenge on his family in Thebes for not believing his mother and not accepting his divinity.
He makes his cousin Pentheus, the ruler of Thebes go mad and then tricks him into spying on the 'Maenads' who are the ecstatic worshippers of Dionysus. Among them is Pentheus' own mother
Because they are in a state of ecstasy they mistake Pentheus for a wild beast and then proceed to tear him to pieces, thus he exacts his revenge.
How did this Apply to religious practices?
This now has to be seen as part of a mythological illustration giving us a clue as to what transpired at these Dionysus mystery cult rituals and the purpose behind them. The use of wine as a mind altering drug is connected to the process of lowering one's inhibitions along with feverish dancing and other methods used to detach an individual from the restrictions of the body. The idea was to unlock and free the mind from the material realm and take the initiate into a state of elevated consciousness.
The practices were extreme apparently and ritual sacrificing with blood letting as well as uninhibited sexual acts were all part of the process. One can imagine a situation of wild orgiastic revelling may well be the reason for the emphasis on secrecy, which is why the details of these mystery cults are not easily found.
It was understood that a state of 'madness' and 'ecstasy' created by wine and perhaps other hallucinogens such as ergot were to facilitate the individual's journey to higher states of consciousness.This was necessary for the release of the individual from the restrictions and limitations of the body and the material realm.
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| Pentheus torn apart by Agave and Ino. Attic red-figure lekanis (cosmetics bowl) lid, c. 450-425 BCE (Louvre) |
This mystery cult then evolved into the later Orphic Cult
In another (Later?) tradition Zeus is said to have bedded his daughter Persephone, who bore a son, Zagreus, which is another name for Dionysus.
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| Zeus and Hera at the Athena Fountain (Pallas-Athene-Brunnen) in front of the Austrian Parliament Building, Vienna, Austria |
Dismemberment Theme
In this myth we are shown Dionysus as the protagonist whose turn it is to have his body ripped apart.
This idea of dismemberment is a very old theme which has been repeated over a few millennia. In the Babylonian mysteries it is Nimrod who is ripped apart after being tricked and placed in a coffin, Semiramis his wife has a son called Tammuz who was the reborn Nimrod.
This happens again in Egypt with the tale of Osiris in which he too is cut up into segments, his penis is the only thing left that is rescued by Isis and she uses it to spawn Horus, who is Osiris reborn.
in the Orphic myth Dionysus heart is the only thing rescued, this is swallowed by Zeus or is placed in his thigh or used to impregnate Semele (depending on the tradition) and he is reborn as the Chief God.
So wth the odd variations it seems this dismemberment and rebirth is an important theme in mystery religions.
Perhaps it is these middle eastern cultic ideas that were incorporated into the Greek trends and grafted into the Greek Pantheon in mythological terms to justify it's inclusion. This is speculation but there has to be a reason for these repeated themes. It is clear the the stories are a method of telling a secret cultic practices that are hidden in the myths.
The Usurpation Theme
According to Hesiod’s Theogony, the original Gods were Uranus (God of the heavens) and Gaia (Goddess of the Earth)
Uranus, fearful of losing his power to his descendants, cast his children into the depths of the earth.
Gaia hid her son Cronus in the marriage bed and later helped him to overthrow his father.
According to myth, on Gaia’s advice Cronus took a sickle and castrated Uranus, throwing his genitals into the sea, this is regarded as the separation of the Heavens and the earth. Out of this act was born the beautiful goddess of love Aphrodite.
From the blood that spilled out from Uranus and fell upon the earth, the Gigantes, Erinyes, and Meliae were produced.
From the blood that spilled out from Uranus and fell upon the earth, the Gigantes, Erinyes, and Meliae were produced.
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| The Birth of Venus (Aphrodite) Sandro Botticelli c1485 |
The first usurpation was therefore Cronus taking over from his father Uranus. The castration is a fairly obvious reference to the wresting away of power and authority and control. Out of its mythological context this would refer to the establishment in the minds of the Greeks, a new God or a new chief God.
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| Gaia - mother earth |
Cronus then became the Lord of his brothers, and, according to myth, shut up the most dangerous of them in Tartarus. He then took for consort his sister, Rhea. But when he was warned by his parents that his own child would likely overthrow him, he swallowed the first five of Rhea’s offspring -- Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, and Poseidon. When the sixth child, Zeus, was born Rhea sought Gaia to devise a plan to save them and to eventually get retribution on Cronus for his acts against his father and children. Cronus was given a stone instead of Zeus to swallow and Zeus was hidden in a Cave on Crete.
Over time the religious system developed and idea epitomised in the rise of a new Chief God, this time Zeus . . . the second usurpation.
Zeus grew up and eventually challenged his father for the throne. A great war ensued called the Titanomachy, Zeus and his brothers and sisters, with the help of the Hecatonchires, and Cyclopes, overthrew Cronus and the other Titans. Afterwards, many of the Titans were confined in Tartarus.
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| Goya's savage version of Cronus (Saturn) devouring his children |
Zeus apparently plans to hand over the crown to his son Dionysus, It is this that sparks the angry jealousy of Hera especially since Dionysus is the son of a Mortal woman, Semele.
This marks the third usurpation
The changing importance of the Hierarchy of Gods is demonstrated in these mythological tales
These can be interpreted as the development of the Greek religion or as the evolution of religious and philosophical systems of thought.
The changing importance of the Hierarchy of Gods is demonstrated in these mythological tales
These can be interpreted as the development of the Greek religion or as the evolution of religious and philosophical systems of thought.
The Orphic version of Dionysus
In this version one sees the story by necessity has Changed in which Dionysus becomes the focus of religious ideas and beliefs and Zeus is shown accepting this by willingly handing over his throne to his son.
Hera is the vengeful factor in this case and she arouses the Titans to attack and destroy the pretender to the throne, this can be interpreted as the difficulty of change and the residence to the new religion in the minds of some adherents unwilling to change the basis of an older established religion.
The story tells of the Titans, whipped into a frenzy by Hera attacking the infant as he was looking in a mirror (in another version they beguiled him with toys and cut him to pieces with knives).
Hera is the vengeful factor in this case and she arouses the Titans to attack and destroy the pretender to the throne, this can be interpreted as the difficulty of change and the residence to the new religion in the minds of some adherents unwilling to change the basis of an older established religion.
The story tells of the Titans, whipped into a frenzy by Hera attacking the infant as he was looking in a mirror (in another version they beguiled him with toys and cut him to pieces with knives).
Athena saved Zagreus' heart and gave it to Zeus, who thereupon swallowed the heart (from which was born the second Dionysus/ Zagreus) and destroyed the Titans with lightning. From the ashes of the Titans sprang the human race, who were part divine (Dionysus) and part evil (Titan).
The Duality
This introduces a new dual aspect of human nature, the Dionysian and the Titanic, is essential to the understanding of Orphism. The Orphics affirmed the divine origin of the soul, but it was through initiation into the Orphic Mysteries and through the process of transmigration that the soul could be liberated from its Titanic inheritance and could achieve eternal blessedness.
The body, is gross and evil (since he is sprung from the Titans), and a soul that is pure and divine (for after all the Titans had devoured the god).
This is clearly an early reference to the idea of the material realm being repugnant and therefore evil. The Greek philosophers had become enamoured with the possibilities presented by the human mind and had begun to believe that the spirit/mind of man was far superior to the body, the body with its diseases and corruptions and ageing was an impediment to the lofty capabilities of the mind and it is this idea that is behind this duality. Dionysus transcends his mortal body by being torn apart and his body destroyed, only his heart is saved and he is then reborn as a pure spirit.
The big question is how is this achieved by his adherents? We see now the introduction of practices that later came to be called 'asceticism'.
The body, is gross and evil (since he is sprung from the Titans), and a soul that is pure and divine (for after all the Titans had devoured the god).
This is clearly an early reference to the idea of the material realm being repugnant and therefore evil. The Greek philosophers had become enamoured with the possibilities presented by the human mind and had begun to believe that the spirit/mind of man was far superior to the body, the body with its diseases and corruptions and ageing was an impediment to the lofty capabilities of the mind and it is this idea that is behind this duality. Dionysus transcends his mortal body by being torn apart and his body destroyed, only his heart is saved and he is then reborn as a pure spirit.
The big question is how is this achieved by his adherents? We see now the introduction of practices that later came to be called 'asceticism'.
Orphism stressed a strict standard of ethical and moral conduct. Initiates purified themselves and adopted ascetic practices (e.g., abstinence from eating animal flesh) for the purpose of purging evil and cultivating the Dionysian side of the human character. Whether this was practiced in conjunction with alcohol and hallucinogens is not clear - it seems these are in opposition to each other although a strict life of asceticism could be punctuated at specific times with ecstatic rituals.
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| Imaginative Hollywood Titans |
3. The reasons for religious growth and change
Socrates represents a huge shift in Greek philosophical thinking. He is so pivotal that a study of Greek philosophical traditions speaks of a pre and post Socratic period. It is noteworthy that Socrates certainly did not spring out of a vacuum but rather he is the culmination of a long tradition that began in the the 6th Century.
The "Pre - Socratic" tradition of Philosophy
In the 6th Century there began a tradition of Scholars who initially began to question the nature of reality and brought into question traditional mythological explanations of the phenomena they saw around them in favor of more rational explanations. These ideas were largely as a result of 'fringe' scholars who encountered various ideas and traditions they encountered on the Greek colonies and trade relationships around the eastern and western extremes of the mediterranean and subsequently imported them back to Greece where they were listened to by a curious and receptive audience. This created much heated debate and traditionalists were naturally concerned about the consequences of provoking the Gods.
As is so often the case there is very little original material from these philosophers and we depend on later writers like Plutarch and Aristotle for information.
The Archaic Period of Greece began with a sudden and brilliant flash of art and philosophy on the coast of Anatolia (Turkey).
The Milesian School
In the 6th century BC, Miletus was the origin of a flowering of Greek philosophical (and scientific) tradition. The earliest known philosopher was Thales, who was apparently educated by an Egyptian which is significant, he is followed by Anaximander and Anaximenes. . . these began to speculate about the material constitution of the world, and to propose speculative naturalistic (as opposed to traditional, supernatural) explanations for various natural phenomena.
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| Map of Anatolia (Turkey) in the 6th C the first flowering of Greek Civilisation. |
It is not difficult for us today to follow the argument for the explanations for natural phenomena based on the one hand, a capricious whim of the anthropomorphic Gods opposed to the causes for earthquakes and Volcanic eruptions etc. which Thales tried to work out through purely naturalistic reasons.
What is more interesting for us is to observe the development of the difficulties that began to present themselves in the light of these new developments about the naturalistic universe as other deeper issues relating to questions on the basis of what constitutes all matter and the nature of the human soul began to present themselves.
This is a fascinating historical debate that continues to this day. The debate circulates around the issue of a material dimension and a spiritual dimension. This was hotly argued already in the 6th BC and polarises the two different mindsets, one that does not acknowledge a reality beyond what a human beings 5 senses can perceive, and the alternative view that our 5 senses do not show us the full spectrum of reality.
The Persian wars
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| Greek hoplite and Persian warrior fighting each other. Depiction in ancient kylix. 5th c. B.C. National Archaeological Museum of Athens |
The Persian wars in which Greece successfully defended itself in a series of epic battles against the Persian Empire, was the single most important event in this growing consciousness movement in Greece.
In the year 457 what we call the 'Golden Age of Athens' begins under the leadership of the great statesman Pericles.
Victory was being celebrate with a vast architectural program to honour and thank the patron deities who had brought Athens and Greece deliverance from the Persian aggressors.
At the time of a significant era of intellectual enlightenment it does seem ironic that an enlightened leader ensures a building program of vast expense to entrench and establish the religious convictions that was becoming eclipsed by a new naturalistic view of reality.
But did people really believe that the Beautiful Chryselephantine sculpture of Athena was a representation of an invisible but real deity who was actively involved in the lives of her Greek subjects?
It may well be that many of the Greeks passionately believed this.
But it is equally apparent that many 'had doubts' .
In the intellectual climate of Greece these differing viewpoints were pretty much tolerated but as we discover with the tale of Socrates, it could be used against an individual when expedient to do so, and to reject the traditional Gods could be punishable with execution.
The great philosophers Protagoras, Zeno of Elea, and Anaxagoras were all personal friends of Pericles (Anaxagoras especially, who influenced Pericles’ public demeanor and acceptance of fate, especially after the death of Pericles’ sons) and Socrates, the man considered the 'father of western philosophy', all lived in Athens at the time.
In the year 457 what we call the 'Golden Age of Athens' begins under the leadership of the great statesman Pericles.
Victory was being celebrate with a vast architectural program to honour and thank the patron deities who had brought Athens and Greece deliverance from the Persian aggressors.
At the time of a significant era of intellectual enlightenment it does seem ironic that an enlightened leader ensures a building program of vast expense to entrench and establish the religious convictions that was becoming eclipsed by a new naturalistic view of reality.
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| Reproduction of the Athena Parthenos statue in the reproduction Parthenon in Nashville, Tennessee, USA. |
Traditional?
Aaah but . . . traditions are very important to the unification of the civilian population. Religious symbols especially old ones are very useful in galvanising national pride.But did people really believe that the Beautiful Chryselephantine sculpture of Athena was a representation of an invisible but real deity who was actively involved in the lives of her Greek subjects?
It may well be that many of the Greeks passionately believed this.
But it is equally apparent that many 'had doubts' .
In the intellectual climate of Greece these differing viewpoints were pretty much tolerated but as we discover with the tale of Socrates, it could be used against an individual when expedient to do so, and to reject the traditional Gods could be punishable with execution.
The Acropolis
The temple of Athena was razed to the ground during the Persian wars, so with the great victory came an ambitious building program not only to restore but to expand.
In the building and development of the Acropolis the historic deities Athena and Poseidon were given first place as Patron deities of Athens, there shortly began buildings venerating various other deities and cults as they were introduced at a steady and continuous pace, which one could expect with the outwardly expansionist religious ideas.
Originally the treasury was set up on the island of Delos from where it got its name. Pericles however, moved the treasury to Athens in 454 BC, and Athens began to use the Navy for its own benefit which inevitably became a cause for conflict and contributed to the outbreak of the Peloponnesian war.
Pericles promoted the arts, literature, and philosophy and gave free reign to some of the most inspired writers and thinkers of his time. During the Age of Pericles, Athens blossomed as a center of education, art, culture, and democracy. Artists and sculptors, playwrights and poets, architects and philosophers all gravitated towards Athens.
Pericles was from a wealthy aristocratic family and used his influence to promote education and is regarded as the first politician to encourage the growth and development of philosophy as a necessary part of human development and progress.
Athens under Pericles saw the building of the Acropolis and the glory of the Parthenon.
In the building and development of the Acropolis the historic deities Athena and Poseidon were given first place as Patron deities of Athens, there shortly began buildings venerating various other deities and cults as they were introduced at a steady and continuous pace, which one could expect with the outwardly expansionist religious ideas.
The Golden Age of Pericles
The victorious leader of Athens was also the Head of the Delian League founded in 478 BC. This was a group of approximately 150 Greek States that set up an association to create a fund to keep Greece in a perpetual state of vigilance after the victory agains Persia.Originally the treasury was set up on the island of Delos from where it got its name. Pericles however, moved the treasury to Athens in 454 BC, and Athens began to use the Navy for its own benefit which inevitably became a cause for conflict and contributed to the outbreak of the Peloponnesian war.
Pericles promoted the arts, literature, and philosophy and gave free reign to some of the most inspired writers and thinkers of his time. During the Age of Pericles, Athens blossomed as a center of education, art, culture, and democracy. Artists and sculptors, playwrights and poets, architects and philosophers all gravitated towards Athens.
Pericles was from a wealthy aristocratic family and used his influence to promote education and is regarded as the first politician to encourage the growth and development of philosophy as a necessary part of human development and progress.
Athens under Pericles saw the building of the Acropolis and the glory of the Parthenon.
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| This ostentatious building plan was initially to boast the success of the old gods - a syncretistic tradition developed and successive Temples and theatres - the enormous theatre (in red below) is dedicated to Dionysus showing its dominance in the 4th C |
The great philosophers Protagoras, Zeno of Elea, and Anaxagoras were all personal friends of Pericles (Anaxagoras especially, who influenced Pericles’ public demeanor and acceptance of fate, especially after the death of Pericles’ sons) and Socrates, the man considered the 'father of western philosophy', all lived in Athens at the time.
Socrates
Just about the same time Socrates was becoming the 'Gadfly of Athens'.
We really have to read Plato in order to find out about Socrates since he never wrote down anything and his life is full of contradictions which obscure the real person.
Plato wrote 'the Apology of Socrates' in which he describes the charges against Socrates, "corrupting the young, and by not believing in the gods in whom the city believes, but in other daemons that are novel"
When one considers the politicising of rival families and factions, it seems that Socrates was regarded as a political menace by the ruling Elite, that needed to be removed by any means possible. But the broader historic view shows Socrates was a catalyst that opened the way for new ideas about reality and religion.
One reason for the execution of Socrates was his criticism of corruption of the ruling elite, he felt that Greed and power were the negative traits that caused loss and suffering and love of wealth was evil. He advocated a simple life among his adherents as a means of avoiding the destructive conflicts they witnessed in the Peloponnesian war.
Since the time of Ionian revolution , the Greeks began to doubt a literal understanding of the Olympian God's in their religion and began to search elsewhere for a more expanded consciousness that reflected the growing sophistication of a personal state of mind. It is this perfection of the consciousness that began to take hold of the philosophers who believed that the human mind can transcend the limitations of the physical body.
This is one of the core ideas in Gnostic thinking.
Socrates was among those who witnessed the slow decline of Athens during the Peloponnesian War, a long debilitating conflict between Athens and Sparta that totally depleted all the reserves of both cities. The insecurity of the times and apparent capriciousness of the Gods encouraged young thinkers to question the truth and reality of the old religions and new beliefs and ideas began to take a more popular hold in the city states.
one of the earliest examples of this kind of thinking developing into a movement was the rise of the Cynics. . .
Plato wrote 'the Apology of Socrates' in which he describes the charges against Socrates, "corrupting the young, and by not believing in the gods in whom the city believes, but in other daemons that are novel"
When one considers the politicising of rival families and factions, it seems that Socrates was regarded as a political menace by the ruling Elite, that needed to be removed by any means possible. But the broader historic view shows Socrates was a catalyst that opened the way for new ideas about reality and religion.
One reason for the execution of Socrates was his criticism of corruption of the ruling elite, he felt that Greed and power were the negative traits that caused loss and suffering and love of wealth was evil. He advocated a simple life among his adherents as a means of avoiding the destructive conflicts they witnessed in the Peloponnesian war.
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| The Death of Socrates 1787 - Jacques-Louis David. The story of the execution of Socrates, as told by Plato in his Phaedo. |
Plato's Phaedo
Phaedo is one of Socrate's students and the story of Socrates is told from his perspective. Plato records the debate about the nature of the afterlife between Socrates and his followers on the day before he is ordered to drink the poisonous Hemlock as a self imposed execution for not believing in the official God's of the state. It is not clear as to what was Socrates ideas or what ideas Plato give him but Socrates it seems was not a materialist and believed he was 'chosen' by the Gods and also that 'virtue' was bestowed and not learned. He felt that the Sophists efforts to attain divinity was in vain since they were not born with the gift. He felt that his death was not a fearful thing since he was already in the company of the divine on earth. His teaching reflected a distrust and scorn of the elite as petty and greedy, this would have won him scores of followers particularly the disaffected youth and the hatred of the powers that be.Since the time of Ionian revolution , the Greeks began to doubt a literal understanding of the Olympian God's in their religion and began to search elsewhere for a more expanded consciousness that reflected the growing sophistication of a personal state of mind. It is this perfection of the consciousness that began to take hold of the philosophers who believed that the human mind can transcend the limitations of the physical body.
This is one of the core ideas in Gnostic thinking.
The Peloponnesian War
The genera optimism and euphoria over the Persian victory and acquired wealth and prestige was soon marred, this was to have a large influence over the thinking of the Greek philosophers and their acolytes.Socrates was among those who witnessed the slow decline of Athens during the Peloponnesian War, a long debilitating conflict between Athens and Sparta that totally depleted all the reserves of both cities. The insecurity of the times and apparent capriciousness of the Gods encouraged young thinkers to question the truth and reality of the old religions and new beliefs and ideas began to take a more popular hold in the city states.
one of the earliest examples of this kind of thinking developing into a movement was the rise of the Cynics. . .
The first Hippies
Antisthenes, 445-365 BC a student of Socrates, he too rejected the pride of wealth and power and developed a system of ideas that later grew into a school of beliefs known as the 'Cynics' . The meaning of the word 'Cynic' is not the same as 'cynicism' of today which we understand as "An attitude of scornful or jaded negativity, especially a general distrust of the integrity or professed motives of others"'Cynic' in this context is related in the Greek to another word which is also used in English today 'canine' which we understand relates to 'dog', this ironically, is closer to its original meaning in this philosophical context. It would appear it was initially a derogatory word. The 'cynics' would live on the streets and walk around barefoot . . . like dogs. They later accepted this as an official designation to their movement, and used it with pride.
The other foundational aspect to their movement was . . . The Orphic Cult
The basic idea is a rejection of luxury and indulgence as a means for happiness and contentment. The cynics believed in a 'back to nature' philosophy in which simple living was the means to contentment.The Orphic Cult was not prepared to divorce itself from the mythological bases of their beliefs and simply accepted the idea of a dual nature of man. In their attempt to rise from the ashes of the Titans they had to adopt a system of anti materialism and discipline to aspire to the spirituality of Dionysus.
The Cynics were not attracted to the idea of duality and were essentially 'materialist' in their system but nevertheless attempted to fit their system into the Pantheon by adopting Heracles as their ideal 'Cynic' but It also appears that the need for a mythological framework that linked these ideas or lets say justified them by adding a new chapter or hero to the Pantheon of Gods was becoming redundant by the 4th Century and philosophers were happy to expound a system of ideas that was becoming totally independent of the previous religious system.
Stoics
Since the Titans, who had slain Dionysus, were believed to have been the ancestors of man, a taint of original sin rested upon all humanity; and in punishment for this the soul was inclosed in the body as in a prison or a tomb. But man might console by knowing that the Titans had eaten Dionysus, and that therefore every man harbored, in his soul, a particle of indestructible divinity In a mystic sacrament of communion the ORPHIC worshipers ate the raw flesh of a bull as a symbol of Dionysus to commemorate the slaying and eating of the god, and to absorb the divine essence anew.
After death, according to Orphic theology, the soul goes down to Hades, and must face judgment by the gods of the underworld; the Orphic hymns and ritual instructed the faithful in the act of preparing for this comprehensive and final examination. If the verdict was guilty, there would be severe punishment. One form of the doctrine conceived this punishment as eternal, and transmitted to later theology the notion of hell. Another form adopted the idea of transmigration: the soul was reborn again and again into lives happier or bitterer than before according to the purity or impurity of its former existence; and this wheel of rebirth would turn until complete purity was achieved, and the soul was admitted to the Islands of the Blest. Another variant offered hope that the punishment in Hades might be ended through penances performed in advance by the individual, or, after his death, by his friends. In the way a doctrine of purgatory and indulgences arose. And thus there were in Orphism trends that culminated in the morals and monasticism of Christianity. The reckless looseness of the Olympians was replaced by a strict code of conduct; a conception of sin and conscience, a dualistic view of the body as evil and of the soul as divine, entered into Greek thought; subjugation of the flesh became a main purpose of religion, as a condition of release for the soul.
The influence of the sect was extensive and enduring. Perhaps it was here that Pythagoreans took their diet, their dress, and their theory transmigration; Plato, though he rejected much of Orphism, accepted its opposition of body and soul, its puritan tendency, its hope of immortality. Part of the pantheism and asceticism of Stoicism may be traced to an Orphic origin. The Neo-Platonists of Alexandria possessed a large collection of Orphic writings, and based upon them much of their theology and their mysticism. The doctrines of hell, purgatory, and heaven, of the body versus the soul, of the divine son slain and reborn, as well as the sacramental eating of the body and the blood and divinity of the god, directly or deviously influenced Christianity, which was itself a mystery religion of atonement and hope, of mystic union and release. The basic ideas and ritual of the Orphic cult are alive and flourishing amongst us today.
Plato's dualism must be considered a precedent to Christian Gnosticism.
Like Gnosticism, Platonism is a dualism of two worlds, one the visible world and the other an invisible "spiritual" world. As in Gnosticism, man stands between these two worlds, related to both. Like Gnosticism, Platonism sees the origin of man's truest self (his soul) in the invisible world but his soul has become entrapped into the physical world of matter, which is a hindrance and a burden. Salvation is the process of freeing the soul from the entanglement in the physical world and leading it back to the spiritual (pure) realm.
